Several reasons for the division of the Kankanaey into two groups: control of water sources after being driven from coastal belts; attraction to the Cordillera highlands' climate and resources beyond the malaria-ridden jungle. Northern Kankanaey settle at approximately 2,000 meters and establish rice terraces near their villages. Areas contiguous to Ilocos lowlands led to increased external influence.
Spaniards occupy adjacent lowlands. Juan de Salcedo leads an expedition yielding 25 kg of gold and encourages further searches for legendary Cordillera deposits.
Expeditions: Francisco de Sande (1576), Juan Pacheco Maldonado (1580), Luis Pérez Dasmariñas (1591), Francisco de Mendoza (1591), Pedro Sid (1591). Gold often taken via tribute or looting; locals hid mines rather than allow extraction.
Expeditions led by García Aldana y Cabrera (1620), Antonio Carreño (1623), Alonso Fajardo (1624). Difficulty and limited yield led Royal Audiencia to discontinue persistent incursions.
Spaniards largely withdrew from highland operations for roughly 150 years, resulting in a period of relative peace and indirect contact with lowlands for the northern Kankanaey.
Spaniards renewed presence in the Cordillera region as colonial interests expanded; contact intensified with missions and small-scale commercial activity.
Creation of the Comandancia de Lepanto (~2,167 sq km), which included towns such as Cervantes and Mankayan. Kankanaey (referred to as "busao") resisted encroachment and control.
Spanish control intensified via arms, proselytization, and economic exploitation (e.g., Mankayan copper mines). Forced introduction of cash crops (coffee, tobacco), construction of roads from Ilocos, and increased trade with lowlanders and Chinese merchants. Processes of Christianization and integration into market economy began.
During the Spanish–American War and the Philippine Revolution, Igorots were involved; headhunting resurged in conflict areas due to resource tensions. The American regime later pacified much of the highlands (around 1902).
US forces pursued Filipino revolutionary leader Emilio Aguinaldo into the Cordilleras as part of the Philippine–American conflict.
American soldiers and prospectors returned; the Mining Bureau and Bureau of Public Lands were established. The Philippine Bill (1902) facilitated mining claims. Construction of roads like Kennon Road increased access; gold production rose substantially (approx. 500,000 pesos/year during 1907–1911, roughly half from Benguet).
Twenty-five Kankanaey from Suyoc participated in the St. Louis World's Fair as part of the so-called "Igorrote Village," demonstrating crafts, mining skills, and weaving; one participant died from pneumonia while abroad.
Benguet contributed approximately 86% of a 6.7 million peso gold output, signaling the region's continued centrality to Philippine mining.
Before World War II, Benguet produced roughly 92% of 73.7 million pesos gold production in the Philippines.
Japanese forces penetrated Mountain Province during WWII and exploited the Mankayan copper mines at high output (reports of ~1,000 tons/day operation at its peak).
After WWII, American-influenced institutions, Protestant missions, military service, and schooling contributed to evolving Igorot identity and broader integration into national structures.
After the Marcos era, Corazon Aquino's government signed a peace pact with the Cordillera People's Liberation Army (CPLA), advancing localized peace efforts.
Formation of the Cordillera Administrative Region (CAR), reuniting several mountain provinces including Abra under a single administrative umbrella.
Plebiscites held in 1990 and 1998 rejected proposed Organic Acts that would have created an autonomous Cordillera region; both plebiscites fell short of approval in some provinces.
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